Lord Greene, in Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd held that there are exceptions to Foss v Harbottle, according to which the company is the claimant in the event wrongs are committed against it, Hicks & Goo (2008). The exceptions to the Foss v Harbottle include a derivative action, under which minority shareholders are permitted to bring claims on behalf of the company itself. This effectively laid ground for the emergency of remedies for minority shareholders in a company, which informed the Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd ruling.

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The court determined that instead of minority shareholders who are entitled to legal remedies in the event of losing a controlling position, which effectively implies that their rights have been affected in due conduct of business, Cahn & Donald (2010). The judges were unable to establish that because of the transaction the rights were varied, arguing that they actually remained what they had always been, given the fact that minority shareholders still had a single vote for every share, Dornseifer (2005).

The petitioner had been a shareholder (minority) in the company (Ardene Cinemas Ltd), whose majority shareholder had opted to dispose of his control over the company. Ardene Cinemas Ltd had two classes of shares, valued at two and ten shillings respectively, with the ten-shilling share comprising of two-shilling subdivisions. Every two-shilling share had a single voting right, Smith (1999). While the company’s articles required that the company’s shares may not be sold to outsiders without the existing shareholders having the “first refusal” at a reasonable price determined according to the company’s articles, this article was duly changed in a special resolution, Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd. Subsequently, the majority shareholder sought to dispose off his shares for six shillings/share to an outsider, coupled with his resignation from the company’s board of directors. The petitioner’s assertion that the change of the company’s article was invalid and constituted a fraud perpetrated against minority shareholders was found to be lacking in substance, since the transaction did not actually impact the rights of the minority shareholders, other than the transfer of control to an outsider, Dornseifer (2005).

The exorbitant fee that the majority shareholder got in exchange for his shares did not constitute a fraud perpetrated against the minority shareholders, not least because the decision to alter the company’s articles did not amount to individual gains to the majority shareholders, which makes the alterations legally valid, The City Law School (2008). It is to be expected that a company’s articles may be changed, and such alterations do not amount to unfair discrimination, if they are conducted in line with the set bounds under the companies Act and under the company’s constitution. Alterations of articles may only be illegal if it leds to the discrimination between minority and majority shareholders, so that it gives the latter advantages deprived from the former, as contemplated in Sidebottom v Kershaw, Leese & Co. Ltd (1920).

Cumbrian Newspapers Group Ltd v CWHNP

Subsequent precedents have however, taken a subtly different approach to the findings in Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd. In Cumbrian Newspapers Group Ltd v Cumberland and Westmoreland Herald Newspaper and Printing Co Ltd (CWHNP), the court held that benefits and rights annexed to certain shares, including the rights to participate in the surplus assets on the closure of the company as well as dividend rights, Cahn & Donald (2010). The court determined that the rights of the company that had been closed down, as a shareholder in CWHNP was not open to variation unless it is with its consent owing to the fact that shares, at the time of conferment, were class rights one a single or more of the members or shareholders. Further, the court determined three basic special rights categories. These included (i) the individual’s constitutional rights, (ii) rights that are annexed as shares and (iii) the rights that are unattached to certain shares, while conferring benefits on given members. These could not be strictly categorized as annexed rights to certain shares, because the special rights of the closed company, CNG derive from the constitution. In addition, the classification of rights deriving from the constitution are also emphasized in Eley v Positive Government Security Life Assurance Co Ltd, despite the fact that they did not always exist this way, Cassidy (2006).

The benefits and rights that are not attached to the any shares, but are conferred on beneficiaries in their capacities as shareholders or members of a company are contemplated in Bushell v Faith. In order to enforce these latter rights, members of the company only require to have possession of some shares, with the exception of article 12, under which a minimum shareholding of 10% is necessary for enforcement, Dornseifer (2005). To this extend, this ruling differs from Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd (1946). It provides for the enforcement of rights derived from Greenhalgh’s ownership of rights within the company, as against the absolute gauge which ruled out any such possibility on the basis of the fact that the minority shareholders’ rights remained unaffected, and thus could not hold the transaction to be illegitimate.
In addition, Cumbrian Newspapers Group Ltd v CWHNP (1986) provide realizes the difficulty of leaving class rights dependent on special resolution majorities during general meetings, unless such are attached to the majority shareholding, Dornseifer (2005). This would fail to cater for the abrogation or variation of special rights allowed by the company’s articles or the memorandum of understanding to class members, which applies to rights annexed to specific shareholding and those deriving as benefits to members. In this respect, this ruling equally challenges the legal and practical implications of rendering the general resolution alteration of articles that affects class rights, which were held as impeachable under Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd (1946).

The variations in class rights remains one of the most intricate areas in commercial/company law, laden with equally intricate judicial nuances and legal technicalities. Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd (1946) provided a helpful working definition, asserting that class itself was not technical, it is impossible to put policy or shareholders in the same class, in the event their rights or claims diverge, Degenhardt (2010). It is possible to attach rights to a class of shares, conferring a right to be paid off ahead of other shareholders/policyholders in liquidation, or to receive a preferential dividend. However, the most important principle is that changes in the rights attached to certain class of shares is governed by a special regime. This means that completely different class permission is necessary as way of affording legal protection to the special right holders. The rules governing special rights are under section 125 to 27 of the 1985 Companies Act, and in order to understand them, it is crucial to understand the exact meaning of variation. Not all acts of a company, which affect the interests of share classes represents a variation of the rights of that class of shares, White v The Bristol Aeroplane Co Ltd (1953). A bonus issue for instance, may not impact the right of preference shareholders, but these rights can be exposed by business practice, in the event of new preference stocks, relating to the rights enjoyment but not the actual rights, Degenhardt (2010). This is evidenced in Re John Smith’s Tadcaster Brewery Company Ltd (1953).
The conventional view of rights as attached to the class of shares as against to the persons that own those shares, is espoused in Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd (1946). In an even older precedent, Elly v Positive Government Security Life Assurance Co (1876), the company’s articles conferred the company solicitor’s rights on a company shareholder, with the right be interpreted as a class right, but it was a personal right, which was attached to the shareholder, Bourne (1998). This precedent provides a clear example of rights, which emerged in Cumbrian Newspapers Group Ltd v CWHNP (1986), which had not been recognized in Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd (1946), and thus providing grounds for contesting the ruling in the latter. This rule has however, not uniformly applied as evidenced in Fisher v Easthaven Ltd (1964), in which the unit holders (shareholders) in home unit company were considered to have a contractual relationship with the company, with a duty imposed on the company to refrain from altering its articles, if any such alteration leads to the abrogation of their rights. This once more, treats the rights of the unit holders as class rights, Degenhardt (2010).
Cumbrian Newspapers Group Ltd v CWHNP also benefited from the new Companies Act (1985). It provides under section 125-127 that rights other the constitutional rights amounted to class rights as defined under the Act, and that there was a definite legislative intention to specifically protect the rights that are annexed as shares as well as those that are unattached to certain shares, but confer benefits to holders, The National Archives (1985). As Justice Scott observed, the wide interpretation of the phrase “rights attached to any class of shares” would inevitably imply that shares can be categorized any class upon disposal or acquisition by an individual. In this case, the right of appointing the director had been invested in the petitioner, provided he had a 10% shareholding, implying that the rights were attached to the plaintiff, contingent on his ownership of shares as against the case in which the actual shares as is required under section 125, The City Law School (2008). This once more provides grounds for contesting the ruling in Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd (1946).

There is however, a number of grounds that may be problematic in contesting the Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd (1946) ruling. Under section 125(8) and 127(6) of the Companies Act (1985), references to class rights variation must be read to include abrogation references. Other than this, and under section 127(7), alterations of the company’s articles that results in the variation of the class rights as had been the case in Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd (1946), shall be decided on the basis of cases on variation and its nature, Cassidy (2006). A complaint from existing shareholders in White v Bristol Aeroplane Co, claiming that issuing further shares would have the effect of reducing the total voting power invested in the preference shares, which effectively implied that the class rights had been varied, was rejected, Sealy & Worthington (2007). The court held that voting rights are conferred by articles or by resolution, and may not be affected except in the case of a sanction by the shareholders or other members on who such rights are invested. The issue as to whether a variation of class rights or an abrogation has occurred due to capital reductions, where the company resolves in a general meeting resolves, by special resolution to reduce capital does not amount to an abrogation, Goulding (1999). In Re Chatterley v Whitfield Collieries Ltd, the court established that provided on capital reduction, the shareholders that receive prior repayments of capital during a wind up are the first to be cancelled and repaid on a reduction of capital.
Effect of s.994 Companies Act (2006) on the Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd.

Section 994 provides that a company shareholder may petition the court for an order defined under the part if the company’s affairs have been, or are being conducted in ways that unfairly prejudice the interests of members in general, or some part of the company’s members, including at least the applicant. Similarly, if the proposed or actual omission or act of a company, including those on its behalf results in, or may result in similar prejudice of some, or all the members’ interests, The National Archives (2006). Effectively, Mr. Greenhalgh is entitled under the act to petition the court to set aside the transaction that would see the shares transferred to an outside party. In addition, the plaintiff is equally entitled to petition the court to sanction the special resolution changes to the company’s articles, which effectively facilitated the transaction about which Mr. Greenhalgh is aggrieved, Hartmann (2009). However, while this legal protection is available, the ability of the plaintiff to proof that his, and other minority shareholders’ interests are being prejudiced by the special resolution changes of the articles, coupled by the transfer of shares to a third party and the resignation of the seller from the board of directors is questionable, Bourne, (1998).

The finding in Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd that the rights of the minority shareholders remained unaffected by the transaction, and there is no reason to belief that the changes in the articles was intended to prejudice the interests of the minority shareholders, Kershaw (2009). In addition, protections extended under the section also apply under section 994(2) to individuals who are not members of the company, but to whom the company shares are transmitted or transferred to through the operation of the law as is applicable to a company member, Smith (1999). Effectively, it is impossible to argue that the incoming shareholder gained rights which had been initially invested in the minority shareholders. The voting rights remained regardless of the price at which the shares had been disposed off, and the power that the minority shareholders held in the company remained exactly as had been without the departure of the former shareholder. Section 994 seeks to protect against class variations that prejudice the interests of some or all the members of the company, and the transaction in question, does not amount to a class variation. In the case of Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd, the articles do not set out that the consent of minority shareholders is necessary to facilitate the transaction by which Mr. Greenhalgh is aggrieved, such as in the case of Re Northern Engineering Industries Ltd (1994), which would effectively result in the petitioner seeking satisfaction for the failure of his consent.
There is no claim on the part of the petitioner that the requirement in the articles providing for shares to be offered to the existing shareholders had been flouted, Smith (1999). By implication therefore, the benefits arising from the fact that Mr. Greenhalgh was a member of the company, to purchase the shares at a reasonable price, because there is no evidence that Mr. Greenhalgh or any other existing shareholders was interested in purchasing the said shares. Additionally, other than the requirement that the existing shareholders be offered the first refusal, there is no other provision in the company’s articles that would place restrictions on the transfer of shares. Without these restrictions, the company’s shares remain freely transferable, House of Fraser plc v ACGE Investments Ltd.

Conclusion

Remedies have always existed for minority shareholders, whose interests are prejudiced during the conduct of the company’s affairs, arising from the use of the voting power of the majority. However, the access to these remedies is complicated by the intricate legal and practical interpretations of whether or not the prejudicial majority action resulted in the variation of the class rights invested in the minority shareholders or any other class of shareholders. With time, general rules have emerged in the interpretation of class variations that have moved away from Greenhalgh v Arderne Cinemas Ltd, to include rights that are unattached to shareholding to those arising from…

Private security management has been associated with the provision of security services in various fields. This involves the agreement on a contract basis between a private security firm and individuals, organizations and groups to offer security services to them. In the contract, terms are set upon the tasks the private security company should be performing. In undertaking these activities in relation to the contract, many legal issues may that need to be addressed by the involved private security company (Dempsey, 2007). In the recent cases, the liability exposure of private security companies has increased enormously. There have been several reasons as to why a high rate of malpractice litigation is currently being labeled against the management of private security.

First, security needs have been enormously on the increase making the police not capable of meeting all of them. This has consequently led to the rapid growth of private security management industry. There is the need to have a cost effective security provisions for businesses, groups, individuals and even the government. This has led to the enormous increase in private security services. The matter has seen more and more probabilities of legal problems as it concerns the provisions of security by the private companies. Secondly, more and more people currently turn to litigation compared to earlier days (Pastor, 2006).United States has more people turning in to suing more frequently hence an increase in legal issues with regards to private security management. Thirdly, any kind of security operations has the tendency to attract lawsuits. For instance, a failure by security to provide safety to employees at work places will be solely blamed if employees get hurt and there are injuries to a certain party. Similarly such natural blame will also occur in the event that thieves make entrance into a business premise and the security fail to prevent this through the alarm relied on by the business. Fourth, private security should now employ professionals and stop the use of semiskilled labor. Litigation grows to a larger extent when private security companies hire untrained security officers, convicted individuals who are subjected to minimum wage and little supervision.

Many customers will often pass the blame on to these private security employees whenever something wrong happens. All the above reasons have contributed largely to the emergence of legal issues as it concerns the provisions of services by the private firms. These legal problems may arise from the customers themselves the services are being offered. Breach of contract issues may arise form those contracting for the services such as individuals or entities (Maxwell, 1992). There may be also the aspect of negligence where those protected may bring forth legal issues as for the failure of the security provider to accomplish certain responsibilities. In another case, third parties may also bring about legal problems. This is potentially possible when persons are affected as a result of the actions undertaken by the private security provider. This has been an issue with the congress and they are working on policies that will ensure that private security contractors deployed overseas are held accountable.

There has been a high reliance on private security providers by the U.S military to carryout military operations overseas. This requires then the need to regulate them and govern them in regard to their conduct. This will ensure that high accountability standards are met and there is controlled oversight from the government upon these private security contractors (Maxwell, 1992). To prevent legal problems the congress is developing a regulatory framework that will ensure use of private security services does not attract more legal issues. In this comprehensive framework, issues of vetting, hiring as well as training employees for these companies will be clearly outlined. Legal problems may as well arise from the normal business activity. There are potential legal issues that may be faced by private security firm in relation to the running of the business. A private security management company may face legal issues as it concerns issues of tax, government regulatory measures and financing issues.

The hiring and training of private security management employees therefore is faced with numerous legal challenges. The hiring process should be carried in a manner to ensure that the best qualified person is employed so as to be able to carry out specific duties assigned. Private security employees should be persons of high integrity, have no criminal charges and of high accountable standards (Pastor, 2006). Private security firms are held accountable when things happen as a result of their personnel’s failure hence attracting legal procedures. Employees hired to these private firms should be trained in line with specific duties and responsibilities they should be undertaking. If loses, costs are incurred because private security employees failed to prevent, the firm will be sued in a court of law for neglect hiring. A necessary training should be designed specifically to meet certain requirements that may be unique.

There should be minimum training standards set so as to attain high performance standards at site areas and avoid many lawsuits that may be leveled against the company. Reports on individual jurisdictions should be thoroughly obtained and an appropriate investigation be conducted (Dempsey, 2007). Through all this, hired employees will be responsible, work within constitutional powers, not violate human rights and not abuse their positions. In addition, prospective litigations, lawsuits, legal allegations and retention claims will be minimal. When private security personnel don’t perform their duties, abuse authority and powers given onto them or they perform duties and responsibilities negligently, there exists the possibility of civil liability against them. A wide range of legal claims leading to investigations have been brought against them hence the hiring and training becomes a crucial process.

Negligent hiring and failure to train have increased liability for private security companies. Failure by these firms to identify reasonable care could lead to employing personnel of questionable character and conduct. Such employees present undue risk and potentially can harm others when undertaking their job responsibilities. Many cases have involved various crimes committed by private security officers against the people initially supposed to give protection (Pastor, 2006). Firms may be sued for negligent hiring hence security managers should ensure any hired employee is qualified, their information is verified. In order to reduce the liability, necessary steps should be followed when hiring and training. If reasonable care is attained, the employer will have confidence with his/her employees and the company’s reputation will not be damaged. In many cases, lawsuits brought up as a result of negligence have proved to be very costly. The legal expenses incurred by the company are too much because often plaintiffs with such cases get hefty rewards from juries.

Negligence suits, damages, criminal acts are on the increase and employers should be…

An advertising company is an independent and separate business organization which promotes the products of the organizations or companies. It consists of creativity, innovation and businessmen and women, who establish, develop and place an advert on the advertising media. This is for the sellers who seek to find customers to purchase their goods and services. The first advertising agency started in 1800 in Britain. It was called whites and it created adverts for the government lotteries and charities and it was mostly for recruitment advertising in the government departments and ministries (Christ, 2008 pp. 470).

These first agencies were more of space brokers and specialize in selling press advertising space on a freelance basis in the newspapers and magazines. Advertising agencies have evolved for many years; as the penetration and production of newspapers and other written materials increased the agency brokers and agents. There was lack of innovation and creativity; hence messages on the advert were repetitive (Katz, 2006 pp. 140). After a few decades, it led to the birth of creative and innovative advertising agencies which are more vibrant and appealing. The first account executives were called contract men. Media planning and market research were developed in advertisement agencies as additional services after the Second World War. Currently, there are more than 500 advertising agencies all over the world. The oldest advertising agency is found in India and it is known as Hindustan Thomson Association Limited (Rarick and Ogden, 2009 pp. 100).

Roles of people and various departments within the agency

There are various departments and people within the agency. These departments and people include: media department, research department, finance department, production department, creative department, media planners, account managers or executives, researchers and creative team (Shannon, 2009 pp. 60).

Media department

This is the most important department in advertising agency. The media manager along with brand manager of the clients develop and prepare the final purchase insertions and media budget for space buying print media, purchase of TV time if it is on the television or the purchase of the radio spots whichever is appropriate. Appropriate media mix is developed in the media department because of their specialization and professionalism in the field. The advert itself is developed so as to ensure it appeals to the potential and target customers in all the market segments and regions (Christ, 2008 pp. 475).

Warning, cigarettes kill

This is the department where the advert is designed where experts and professionals in the department work hand in hand to ensure the advertising message is enticing and appealing to the potential customers and the target market. An appropriate media mix is developed within the department because of the specialized and professionals within the department.

Media planners place the ads through an appropriate advertising media because each media has its own unique method for passing information. They organize for placement either by third party seller or through contact with the media. The other role of a media planner is to negotiate the best deals, look for the best media match and advise appropriately on the nuances of different media (Shannon, 2009 pp. 70).

Research department

This is the department where before and after commercial advert is made and analyzed for pre-testing and post-testing. Brand usages and consumer insights are tested so as to know what the clients want and in accordance to their specification. The researchers in the full-service advertising agencies are employed so as to assess the client’s market situation, testing creative ideas, understanding customers and the competitors in the market. The researchers also use the completion of an advertising campaign to measure and test whether the campaign meet its desires goals and objectives. The research can easily get the reaction of the client’s target market so as to get their needs and the advertisement concepts (Shannon, 2009 pp. 80).

Finance department

This is the department which looks at the accounts and financial records for the advertisement agency. The department prepares the budget, source for funds, allocate the funds and ensure proper utilization of funds within the agency. The budget is based on the needs and requirements of the each department presented by the financial analyst and advisors within the department in consultation with other departments. The account manager or account executive has a responsibility of locating and negotiating to acquire clients and to decide the charges depending on the advert they want to reach their customer and potential customers. The advertisement strategy is worked out so as to manage different accounts which do not compete and to pay the required amounts only (Christ, 2008 pp. 480).

Creativity department

In this department, a creative director in a team of visualisers and copywriters who see the big idea where the storyboard and script work is done as specified by the client to the agency. The executive director prepares the final layout then he sends for approval by the client. The creative team within the department manages the overall advertisement campaign for the client in accordance to their specifications which includes delegating selective tasks to be performed by the specialists or professionals in this department. The managers involve themselves in generating ideas, creating final advertisement and designing the concepts which are generally the responsibility of the entire agency creative team. This creative team consists of specialists and professionals in computer programming, copywriting, graphic design and film and audio production (Shannon, 2009 pp. 90).

Production department

This is essential department in the advertisement agency. It is responsible for converting the storyboard into a finished layout for the outdoor and print medium. Before a final story board is sent for shooting, it is first made into a technical storyboard to ease shooting. If the production department fails to shoot as required by the client, the potential customers to the client may not be interested with his or her products. The clients depend on the impression created by the advertisement agency to its potential customers in the target market for its products to be appealing (Rarick and Ogden, 2009 pp. 110).

Client servicing

This is a department that links the agency and the client, which is also called account executive. The executive officer design what the client exactly want to his or her ad agency. This is where coordination and connection takes place so as to ensure good relationship between both parties. This is a sort of promoting public relations of the company so as to achieve the desired objectives of the organization (Christ, 2008 pp. 490).

Advertisement interns

These are the university seniors and juniors who are interested in and genuinely have an aptitude and attitude for advertising in advertisement agencies. These internships fall into five areas of expertise in the advertising agencies, for example sales and marketers. These are the account services, media, traffic, public relations and interactive. Students who want to gain experience and to apply what they have been taught can find good orientation and experience as assistant art director or assistant copywriter. Internship programs in the account service involve the basic fundamental work within the account management and to provide exposure to the other facets of the agency (Jeffrey and Axelrod, 2008 pp.67).

They provide support services to the clients and to assist account managers which include research, creating programs, liaising with the clients and coordinating all activities within the agency. As an intern in the advertisement agency, he or she may work in the traffic department to regulate the flow of work in the agency where it is headed by a system administrator (traffic manager). Traffic increases an agency effectiveness and efficiency by ensuring that there is reduction of false job starts, need for media extension, over and under cost estimation, incomplete information sharing and inappropriate job initiation (Jeffrey and Axelrod, 2008 pp.70). All the departments and personnel work together as a team to ensure the clients get satisfied with the services of the advertisement agency. No department works on its own without the support of others. For example, the creative, research and production departments will require the finance depart to finance their activities which are interlinked or interconnected. All departments and the human resources must do thorough consultation before decision is made (Katz, 2006 pp. 132).

Large international and small indigenous agencies

The large international agencies and small indigenous agencies serve the same purpose but the only difference that; the international advertisement agencies are used by the multinational companies while the local indigenous agencies deal with the companies within the country borders. The international agencies are more developed than the local indigenous agencies (Rarick and Ogden, 2009 pp. 120).

Tracking is essential in the company for the company to achieve its set goals and objectives of appealing to many customers. For example, if you company ABC wants to advertise the cooking fat in the XYZ advertisement agency, the marketing manager of the company will approach the agency firm and explain to the officials on the product he wish to be advertised. The product is then analyzed and the features labeled then the media chosen after the advertisement costs have been negotiated and agreed upon. The media department will decide on the media to use (Jeffrey and Axelrod, 2008 pp.85).

Advertisement agencies through the marketing managers track their briefs especially the marketing budgets. The marketing managers, financial and marketing controllers have been forced to track their budgets, production and all activities taking place within the agency. All activities associated with the invoices and following up of vendors for payment must be monitored very closely. The marketing financial information is processed in three phases for easy tracking. These are: the marketing manager prepares them in excel spreadsheet, then the marketing controller keep in their access database and finally by the finance department in the EPR System. With all these systems, the budget and funds allocation will be tracked very easily; hence avoiding fraud and misuse of funds in the agency. A single online centralized system has been created so as to integrate all operational planning tools, financial reporting and strategy so as to ensure optimum effectiveness and efficiency (Rarick and Ogden, 2009 pp. 115).

Sports sponsorship is a tool or a strategy used by many to create and to generate awareness, to influence consumer behavior patterns and to alter attitudes of the potential customers in the target market. This is because it generates beneficial consumer effects. This has been able to have an impact and most advertisement agencies are changing their tactics because marketing through televised sporting events has been attracting many people all over the world. Most of the advertising agencies management, evaluation and control corporate event advertising and sponsorship have many advantages than other forms of advertisement. Sports and music related sponsorships are considered to be more effective and efficient in passing or conveying the message because of the resources they have at their disposal, the size and the variety of audiences it appeals to (Jeffrey and Axelrod, 2008 pp.87).

Advertising objectives are the communication and coordination tasks to be accomplished with specific clients or customers that a company is trying to reach at within a particular time frame using a specific channel. It is the responsibility of the personnel at the advertising agency to ensure advertising objectives and goals are achieved. There are four advertisement objectives where an advertisement agency strives to achieve in order to meet the clients specification. These objectives are: switchback, brand switching, continuity and trial. An advertising agency will choose any of the objectives that fit a particular company depending on where the product is in its life cycle (Rarick and Ogden, 2009 pp. 111).

Trial objective

The main aim of the trial objective is to encourage and to inspire the customers and the potential customers to make an initial purchase of the company’s new products. For the advertising agency, it will employ creativity advertising strategies so as to cut through and to penetrate through other competing advertisements. There could be no repeat purchases without first trial of the product by the customers (Katz, 2006 pp. 135).

Continuity objective

This is a strategy used by the advertisement agencies to maintain and to retain current customers using a particular product or service. The already existing customers are targeted and are usually provided with new and different information about the product. This is meant to build consumer loyalty and trust (Jeffrey and Axelrod, 2008 pp.89).
Brand switching objective.

The advertising agencies will adopt this brand switching objective for the company when they want the customers to from its competitor’s brands to their brand. This strategy is used so as to outperform the competitors in the market. This is a common strategy where the advertising agency compare the product quality and price and lay a strategy on how to convince customers to switch to its product brand (Belch and Belch, 2004 PP. 40).

Switchback objective

This an advertisement objective used by the companies when they want their former customers, consumers or users of their product brand. A company through its advertisement agency can highlight the new and improved product features, price reduction and any other important information in order to get the customers of its product to switch back to their initial products (Belch and Belch, 2004 PP. 46).

Communication objective

Advertising objective must be concrete and measurable at all times. This means that, an advert message should be a precise statement and should communicate well to the target audience. It should have a way to measure whether it has achieved the set objectives and goals after the advertisement period has come to an end (Belch and Belch, 2004 PP. 55).
Planning an advertisement campaign.

An advertisement campaign is meant to educate the public or the potential customers regarding the breadth of the planned campaign for the services. This will generate the impact to the community and more commonly to provide a common ground and to encourage an open discussion about the products of the company (Belch and Belch, 2004 PP. 60).

Some companies choose to advertise their products through an advertisement agency when the products are likely to be purchased. For example, when schools are about to be opened, the books and pens manufacture ring companies can stage a serious campaign on their products because there is a possibility that, almost all students will buy the products to use in school when the schools open. Another example is where a toy retailer focuses much on its advertising efforts when Christmas or any festive season is around. When selling to other business, it is worth identifying when the already existing customers and the potential customers will have the budget and the willingness to spend. This can be possible if the company can have a marketing strategy in place knowing that it will reap maximum profits (Katz, 2006 pp. 140).

Some businesses choose to focus more attention on the busier and quieter times when the sales will increase. This will mean that, you will have to work hard to outperform your competitors because most of them will not be advertising due to the fewer customers. When the market is silent, a company can decide to advertise at a slow pace as the markets picks up. A active advertisement market campaign is important during the busier times because the company will have develop a bigger customer base and to minimize relying on some specific trading periods (Belch and Belch, 2004 PP. 70).

References:

Belch, G. and Belch, M. 2004. Advertising and Promotion: an integrated marketing
Communications perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill. Pp. 40-70
Christ, P. 2008. Know This: Marketing Basics. Know This Media. California, Know This
Media. New York: MIT Publishers. pp. 470–490.
Jeffrey, D. and Axelrod, M. 2008. Uncommon Marketing Techniques: Direct Marketing Series.
Los Angeles: Danielle Adams. pp. 67-89
Katz, H. E. 2006. The media handbook: a complete guide to advertising media selection. Media
New York: MIT Publishers. pp. 130-140.
Shannon, J, W. 2009. Electric Sounds: Technological Change and the Rise of Corporate Mass Media.
New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 60-90Rarick, S. and Ogden, J. R. 2009. The Entrepreneur’s Guide to Advertising. New York: ABC
CLIO. pp. 100-120

What is moral and what is immoral? Perhaps, no one can give a definite answer. The morality is as flexible as opinions of people, who talk about it. The origin of the word “moral” comes from Latin and initially means the lesson that is learned from the legend, story or experience of an individual. A lot of people would argue that the purpose of the literature is morals, or in other words, lesson that reader can take from it.

This article is the product of our essay service. It can be used only if our ownership of this article is mentioned.

Literature is one of the major sources of information and, in contrast with TV or other media sources, it has more intimate relation with its reader, as it gives moral lesson without any external and additional effects that may influence the decision or interpretation of the moral of the story.

Some other sources and attempts to bring morality into unified stream among people are the lessons of religion and various proverbs that have their roots in old history and cultural development of the communities and nations. These small pieces of writing are impressively strong and serve as effective methods to bring the notion of moral into our daily life. We will not remember the author of the book or the names of the characters, but we do, generally, pick up some strong and sound ideas. These ideas build up our understanding and vision of external world and, consequently, our moral maturity.

Moral is a great tool to...

In the modern world education is not just a requirement and moral value, but also an expensive market product. One of the major characteristics of modern education is the directly proportional relationship between the age of educational institution and its value. While other market products value innovation and complete change and modernization of the portfolio, education values proposition based on the conservative and tested system that is checked and evaluated through years. Thus, when we talk about modern education, we assume combination of technological developments and conservatives of old and traditional educational institutions.

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Let us look at such sound names as Harvard, Oxford or Cambridge. The name is the prestige that a lot of people are trying to get and this reputation makes these universities attract the best intellectuals from all over the globe. Educational system puts a lot of efforts to keep traditions and conservative elements of the educational process. On the other hand, progress makes it a necessity to implement new technological advancements available on the market to enhance learning process and take the most out of innovative educational solutions. This contrast and cooperation of modern technologies and traditional education can be evidenced even in the architecture of universities: when you enter the old buildings with long history and see computers and systems that coordinate and direct education.

Anyway, modern education as a market product offers a lot of newer and less traditional universities that position themselves as fresh and innovative alternative to the old and “stagnated” institutes that are no longer the best. These...

Karl Marks is an outstanding personality in the history of economic science. His works on the economics of capitalism laid foundation to the development of separate philosophical stream – Marxian Economics. It is important to differentiate Marxian economics from Marxism, as the latter one is the theory of political and social science. Marx was the first to discuss and identify the role of proletarian revolution as the basis for development of capitalism.

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One of the major works ever written by Marx is The Capital. The author worked on this book for more than ten years overall and the entire version of the work was only published after his death. The Marxian Economics is based on Marx’s perception and analysis of the works and studies prepared by his predecessors and opponents, such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo. The Capital is often considered as a response to them, in particular to the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith. While both works agreed on fundamental role of capital and production capabilities in the economic relationships, they had fundamentally different views on some of the elements of labor relations.

The theory of Marxian economy is concentrated on the value of labor and compensation for the necessary work. Additionally, Marx introduces the theory of commodity fetishism that is put in the basis of many studies and economic theories developed much later in the history. Marxian theory is using dialectics in the methodology of its analysis and argumentation that creates a lot of opposition from the supporters of synergetic theory.

Modern economics has fully adopted some of the core attributes that Marx gave to the role of commodities. Two of them, however, play the distinguishing role in determining economic relationships in closed economics: commodities use-value and commodity value. Role of Marx in the economic history is impossible to underestimate and Marxian Economics is one of the strongest and most influential economic streams that has been developed up to now.

I cannot say that I love reading, but I undoubtedly enjoy it, depending on the mood I am in. It is not a secret that statistics is “showing scaring figures” about the downgrading trend of reading preference in many developed countries. I agree with the numbers, but believe that the definition “scary” is given to it either by mistake or due to incomplete and not evaluated information.

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In the modern world young population has a lot of opportunities that our parents and especially our grandparents could not even dream about. Information and knowledge about the world, philosophy and development was limited by the means that were available for people to transfer and share it. In this situation books and other reading sources played major role in the development of social and individual knowledge.

Today reading has to compete with numerous entertainment and information sources and the preferences that determine the reading statistics are no longer that straightforward and simple. We do not choose between genres and authors exclusively, but include time value and reliability of the information we receive through books, Internet, radio or television into consideration. Academic reading evolved, probably, more than other types of reading due to the fact that new developments, such as Internet, provided students and scholars with an opportunity to use their time more efficiently. If twenty years ago in order to find information about particular historical event we had to go to the library and look through thousands of pages before we find what we were looking for, now we can simply “google” it. For some reason people very often see this fact as the downside in terms of reading, rather than upside.

I am convinced that we are not getting less educated or widely minded by not spending that amount of time for reading. I could even argue that if we can balance reading with other ways of information obtaining, we only benefit from it. I do not read a lot, but I enjoy some reading from time to time just for pleasure.

It is a common knowledge that it is important to keep the level of population in the countries on the acceptable level to be able to meet basic requirements for living and supplying each of the population members with food and other basic needs. Numerous theories were trying to determine the principles of population, but all of them, from my perspective, come to the simple truth – population management is in scientific way managing the capacity of our planet. With that in mind I believe that we can apply the principles of capacity and demand management to population.

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Let us look at the designed capacity of the planet from the perspective of a) space; b) resources availability; and c) nature damage. These are the basic elements that should be taken into consideration when analyzing population density and other demographic factors. Based on them, scientists in the simulative environment could build the future designed capacity of the planet. Forecasts and prospects are never hundred percent correct, as they are majorly influenced by the factors like human preferences, natural and climate changes and other external factors that cannot be taken into account due to lack of information. With that in mind it becomes obvious that design capacity will differ quite significantly from the actual one. Modern people have extremely mobile life due to the requirements of globalization. The choice as of where to live is impacted by professional opportunities, political and economic limitations set by the local authorities and, of course, preferences. One of the major principles of population is seasonality and unequal distribution of the population across various geographic areas.

Taking into consideration mobility of modern societies and individuals and globalization effectson population , modern principles have adopted several distinguishing characteristics that will differ from the logic of population even in previous generation. Principles of population are flexible and depend on many factors, weight of which will vary depending on the time, location and cultural and historical characteristics of the social group.

Originally called First Impressions, the novel was the second one ever written by Jane Austen. It took the author twelve years to publish the novel and it was published only after significant revisions and corrections in the manuscript that she wrote in 1976. The novel saw the light in late 80’s under the name Pride and Prejudice, – the name so familiar and important for modern and classical literature.

In spite of the fact that the story takes place back in the nineteenth century, the concepts and values that Austin touched upon in her piece of writing still charm and challenge modern readers. As the name of the book says for itself, the values of pride and prejudice have always been and will always remain fundamental aspects of human personality.

The situation that is described in the novel is very common for the family relationships in the nineteenth century, when human rights were very much driven by patriarchate constitution. With the forthcoming death of Mr.Bannet, the father of the family, his wife remained alone with five daughters with no access to income or place to leave. To make the situation less dramatic, Mrs.Bannet is trying to find husbands for her daughters, but does not get any support from her husband. This main plot goes in parallel with the relationships elements between young sisters and a new comer in the town. The relationships are built around and disclose the conflict of social classes and styles of living as well as pride and prejudice that both Mr.Bingly and Jane, one of the sisters, have to go through.

With Pride and Prejudice Jane Austin painted wonderful and emotional picture of real and existing feelings and relationships in a simple, from the first glimpse, town. These relationships are transferred through the century and still seem familiar and similar to the way we see our environment and feel about each other.

Photography is the philosophy of our memories that are carefully packed and stored on the respective shelves of our mind and marked with the momentum of the photo. Photos look small, but emotions, moments and reflections that are carried by each of us in the photos make these pieces of art alive and unique. We complete and fill photos with our personalized picture of the moment.

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One of the major and the most impressive qualities of photography is the ability to lie and this lie becomes significant, but, at the same time charming. How many times have you been attracted by the photo in the guide and created a dream that would take you to that place? How many times, when you reached this place, were you burned by the difference and illusion that was created through the photo?

Sometimes, however, when photography is honest, it can denude the unfortunate reality of our life. Once I came across the series of photos that were taken by one young photographer that was trying to show the life in the city from another angle – the one that was definitely contrasting with the entire atmosphere of the gallery, its visitors and its character. More than hundred photos sighted the chase of the homeless people in the streets of ten world capitals. The contradiction between the background and front line in the photos was impressive and the photographer managed to catch a moment that gave a real breathe to each of the photos, each of them telling its story, never happy, but always with hope.

I do not remember the name of the photographer right now, she never got famous, but the photos will always remain in my mind and, I am sure, in the...